Sexual Harassment in Indian Educational Workplaces: Legal Framework & Institutional Reforms

Introduction

Sexual harassment is a symptom of strained personal connections. It is not only a breach of human decency, access to social welfare, and fairness guaranteed by all social systems but also a violation of the human right to life and peaceful relationships as granted by law. Although sexual harassment in educational institutions has received some publicity in cultural and legal circles over the past few decades—such as the passage of the Sexual Harassment Act of 2013—the causes and effects of sexual harassment in workplaces have received less recognition.

This article provides insight into the sexual harassment issues encountered by students and professors in Indian schools and universities. These issues significantly impact women seeking better employment opportunities and girls pursuing education in a developing economy. The focus of this article is to examine the behavior of assaulters, who may be employers or employees of academic institutions, and to explore how to resolve victims’ complaints quickly yet fairly. When a woman who has been sexually harassed speaks out against unjust treatment, the integrity and stability of the academic system can be severely harmed and polluted.

The intensity of the effects faced by young women and lecturers subjected to abuse, especially given the fiduciary relationship between the aggrieved woman and the offender during their time in educational establishments, makes this issue both relevant and important. Recognizing what constitutes sexual harassment, how to address it, and how to prevent it in educational institutions is critical for administrators, employees, students, and their families. It is long overdue for each educational establishment to design and implement an effective grievance redressal mechanism to address the problem promptly.

Legal Consequences of Sexual Harassment in India

Sexual harassment is psychologically harmful and creates an unpleasant and inefficient work environment. It is usually classified into two categories: quid pro quo and hostile work environment.

  1. Quid pro quo refers to inappropriate behaviour when a colleague, manager, or supervisor seeks physical favours in return for job-related benefits and threatens employees with severe consequences if such demands are not met.
  2. Hostile work environment occurs when a colleague, supervisor, or superior engages in physical or verbal actions that interfere with another person’s ability to work or create a workplace culture that is oppressive, aggressive, inflammatory, or embarrassing, thereby violating personal integrity.

Sexual assault has long been acknowledged as one of the most terrifying and offensive acts of abuse. The landmark case Vishaka vs. State of Rajasthan (1997) established workplace sexual harassment as a violation of human rights. The Supreme Court’s ruling laid out guidelines for implementing basic human rights for women through preventive measures, protective mechanisms, and retributive justice. It mandated that the government, public sector, and other entities establish grievance redressal mechanisms.

The court also cited the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), adopted in 1979, and ruled that in the absence of explicit legislation, international laws could fill the gap to protect fundamental civil rights in India. Until the Vishaka ruling, India lacked specific legislation addressing sexual harassment. Provisions such as Sections 354 (outraging a woman’s modesty), 375 (rape), and 509 (intending to insult a woman’s modesty) of the Indian Penal Code, 1860, were insufficient to address and reduce instances of sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment violates a woman’s fundamental right to equality under Article 14 of the Indian Constitution and her right to liberty and dignity under Article 21, which includes the right to a harassment-free workplace. Several Supreme Court cases interpreting these articles have emphasized the right to a dignified existence guaranteed by Article 21.

It took 16 years for Indian lawmakers to enact legislation that provides a comprehensive framework for addressing complaints of sexual harassment. The law also ensures women’s rights are protected. In Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Association vs. Government of Bangladesh (2009), the Bangladesh High Court cited instances of sexual harassment of female teachers and students in educational institutions and specifically noted that the regulations from the Vishaka case could apply to academic institutions as well as workplaces.

Conclusion

Sexual harassment of women is a global issue whose severity is felt by all parties involved. To combat harassment, countries have adopted various legal strategies. With the enactment of India’s law on workplace safety for women, which includes rigorous guidelines for prevention and protection, every woman—whether a student, non-academic staff, or educator—must be safeguarded from sexual misconduct, threats of violence, and exploitation while associated with university premises. Our goal should be to create a society where every woman is free from sexual harassment and has the liberty to work in an environment free of such misconduct in any form.


Riya Majumder (CMR Law School – 5th Year )

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Sources of Hindu Law in Family Law: Ancient Texts, Customs etc

Introduction to the Sources of Hindu Law

Hindu law governs the personal lives of Hindus in India. It deals with marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption, guardianship, and family relations. Unlike codified systems, Hindu law evolves from a variety of sources that influence its development over time. These sources are categorized as ancient and modern. Each has shaped Hindu family law into what it is today.

In this detailed discussion, we will explore both the ancient and modern sources that contribute to Hindu law. We will also examine their specific roles in family law.

Ancient Sources of Hindu Law

Ancient sources are foundational texts and customs that predate colonial influences. These include:

Shruti: The Vedas

The Vedas, considered the earliest and most authoritative texts, form the foundation of Hindu law. They consist of hymns, mantras, and rituals, but also contain principles for human conduct. There are four Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. Although they do not explicitly address family law, their teachings emphasize Dharma. Dharma, the duty towards family and society, shapes family law.

The Vedas establish the responsibilities of individuals in the family. For instance, they define the duty of a husband to protect his wife and of parents to care for their children. These duties continue to influence the legal framework governing family relationships.

Smriti: Manu Smriti and Other Texts

The term “Smriti” refers to remembered laws written after the Vedas. The Manu Smriti is the most significant Smriti related to family law. It outlines rules on marriage, divorce, inheritance, and family roles. For example, it describes different types of marriage such as Brahma marriage (arranged by parents) and Gandharva marriage (love marriage).

Manu Smriti also discusses women’s roles and property rights, which were quite limited in ancient times. Daughters were often excluded from inheritance, and widows had restricted rights. Despite these limitations, Smritis are crucial in understanding the early development of family law.

Custom (Achara)

Custom or Achara plays an important role in Hindu law. Customs, passed down through generations, govern many aspects of family life. These practices hold legal validity when they are ancient, reasonable, and consistently followed by the community.

For instance, in some regions, communities practice matrilineal inheritance, passing property through the female line. The Aliyasantana law in South India is an example of this. Customs also determine marriage rituals and adoption rules in various Hindu communities.

Commentaries and Digests

Over the centuries, scholars wrote commentaries and digests that explain the Smritis. These works offer interpretations and clarifications of Hindu laws. Among the most important commentaries are the Mitakshara and Dayabhaga.

  • Mitakshara, written by Vijnaneshwara, influences inheritance laws across most of India. It details coparcenary rights and joint family property.
  • Dayabhaga, authored by Jimutavahana, is followed mainly in Bengal and Assam. It differs from Mitakshara in its inheritance rules. For instance, sons can inherit property only after the father’s death under Dayabhaga.

These commentaries help modern courts interpret ancient laws, especially concerning property rights and family disputes.

Modern Sources of Hindu Law

Modern sources emerged with the British rule and subsequent independence. These include judicial decisions, legislation, and principles of equity. They have significantly shaped current family law.

Judicial Precedents

Courts play a major role in developing Hindu family law. Higher courts, especially the Supreme Court, issue rulings that influence future cases. This practice is known as the doctrine of stare decisis. Judicial decisions, especially in landmark cases, help clarify and modernize family law.

For example, the Shah Bano Case (1985) brought attention to the right of Muslim women to maintenance after divorce. Although the case involved a Muslim woman, its influence extended to Hindu family law as well. The court’s interpretation of Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) emphasized women’s rights to maintenance, influencing similar rulings in Hindu law.

Legislation

Several legislative acts have reformed and codified Hindu family law. These acts ensure that ancient customs align with modern values of equality and justice. The most notable laws include:

  • The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: This act governs marriage and divorce among Hindus. It establishes legal grounds for divorce such as cruelty, desertion, and adultery. It also recognizes monogamous marriages and consensual divorces.
  • The Hindu Succession Act, 1956: This act revolutionized inheritance rights by giving daughters equal rights to property. Before this act, women’s inheritance rights were minimal or nonexistent.
  • The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956: This act establishes the welfare of the child as the primary consideration in determining guardianship.
  • The Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956: This law regulates adoption and guarantees maintenance rights to spouses, children, and parents.

These laws have reformed Hindu family law, promoting gender equality and individual rights. They ensure that the legal framework keeps pace with changing societal values.

Principles of Equity, Justice, and Good Conscience

In cases where no clear legal rule exists, courts rely on principles of equity, justice, and good conscience. This approach ensures that even in the absence of codified laws, justice prevails. Courts use these principles to resolve family disputes when existing laws are silent or outdated.

For example, when determining the division of family property, courts often take a balanced approach to ensure fairness. This practice ensures that legal outcomes align with contemporary moral and ethical standards.

Influence of International Human Rights

International treaties and human rights laws also influence modern Hindu family law. India’s participation in agreements like the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has spurred reforms that benefit women. These reforms have ensured gender equality in inheritance, adoption, and guardianship laws.

For example, the Hindu Succession Act now guarantees equal property rights for daughters, reflecting global human rights standards. Courts frequently cite international law to justify progressive changes in family law, ensuring it aligns with universal human rights principles.

Conclusion

The sources of Hindu law, both ancient and modern, form a rich tapestry that governs family relations. Ancient texts like the Vedas and Smritis provide a foundation for Hindu law. Customs and commentaries offer additional guidance, reflecting the diversity of practices within Hindu communities.

In modern times, legislation and judicial decisions have reformed Hindu family law, making it more equitable and aligned with contemporary values. The introduction of acts like the Hindu Marriage Act and Hindu Succession Act ensures greater protection for women and children. Courts continue to play a vital role in interpreting and applying these laws, often relying on principles of equity and justice.

As society evolves, so too does Hindu family law. International human rights law, judicial activism, and legislative reforms ensure that it remains relevant and responsive to the needs of modern society. By balancing tradition with progress, Hindu law continues to govern family matters while embracing the values of equality, fairness, and justice.


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