Marriage Laws in India – An Overview of Personal Laws

In our last post on marriage in Indian law, we looked at the right to marry, court protections for choice, and the conditions for a valid Hindu marriage. You can read it here: Marriage in Indian Law – Rights and Rules Explained.

Now, we move to other personal laws in India. Different religious and community groups have their own legal systems for marriage. These laws define who can marry, the age requirements, and the ceremonies that must be performed. They also explain when a marriage is void or voidable. Understanding these rules is important because the legal consequences of marriage depend on the law that applies to the couple.

Marriage under Parsi Law

The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936 applies to Parsis in India. For a marriage to be valid under this law:

• The couple must not be related within prohibited degrees of blood or marriage as listed in Schedule I of the Act.
• The marriage must be performed according to the Parsi form of ceremony called Ashirvad, conducted by a Parsi priest in the presence of two Parsi witnesses.
• The minimum age is 21 years for the groom and 18 years for the bride.

If any of these conditions are not met, the marriage is invalid. However, even if a marriage is invalid, the Act says that any child born from it will still be considered legitimate. This protects the rights of children in cases where the marriage itself is not legally valid.

Marriage under the Special Marriage Act, 1954

The Special Marriage Act is a secular law that allows any two people, regardless of religion, to marry. It is often used for inter-faith marriages when neither person wants to convert.

The key conditions are:

• Neither person should already be married to someone else.
• Both must be mentally capable of consent and free from certain mental disorders.
• Minimum age is 21 years for the groom and 18 years for the bride.
• The couple must not be related within prohibited degrees unless custom allows it.
• In Jammu and Kashmir (before changes in constitutional status), both parties had to be Indian citizens domiciled in India.

This law also includes a detailed procedure for giving public notice before marriage, which can be a challenge in sensitive inter-faith cases. It also allows for registration of marriage and provides for divorce and other matrimonial reliefs.

Marriage under the Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872

For Indian Christians, the Indian Christian Marriage Act governs marriages. According to Section 60:

• The groom must be at least 21 years old and the bride at least 18 years old.
• Neither person can have a living spouse at the time of marriage.
• The marriage must take place in the presence of a licensed person and at least two credible witnesses.
• Both partners must declare in front of these witnesses that they accept each other as husband and wife, using words similar to those provided in the Act.

This law focuses on religious solemnisation and clear verbal consent before witnesses.

Marriage under Muslim Personal Law

Muslim marriage, or nikah, is a contract between a man and a woman. It can be valid, void, or irregular.

A valid (sahih) marriage meets all legal and religious requirements.
A void (batil) marriage has no legal effect from the start. This can happen if the couple is related within prohibited degrees of blood, marriage, or fosterage, or if one partner is already married to someone else in circumstances not allowed by law. Children from such a marriage are considered illegitimate.

An irregular (fasid) marriage is one that has a temporary problem, such as being conducted without witnesses, with a fifth wife when four already exist, during the woman’s waiting period (iddat), between people of different religions not permitted under Islamic law, or involving close relations to a current spouse.

If the problem is corrected — for example, witnesses are added, the iddat period ends, or a conflicting wife is divorced — the marriage can become valid. Even if consummated, an irregular marriage does not give inheritance rights between spouses, but children are legitimate.

Registration of Marriage

Under the Hindu Marriage Act, registration is optional, but under the Special Marriage Act, it is part of the process. The Supreme Court in Seema v. Ashwani Kumar directed that all marriages, regardless of religion, should be registered to prevent disputes.

Registration creates official proof that the marriage took place. It can help in legal matters such as proving inheritance, securing custody of children, or claiming maintenance. While registration does not turn an invalid marriage into a valid one, it provides strong evidence in court.

Courts have also recognised the need for flexibility in registration procedures, especially when spouses live in different places. Technology can be used to confirm details without requiring both partners to be physically present in the same office.

Void, Voidable, and Irregular Marriages

A void marriage is treated as if it never happened. No legal rights or duties arise from it, and either party can marry again without divorce. Examples include bigamous marriages or marriages within prohibited relationships under laws like the Hindu Marriage Act.

A voidable marriage is valid until annulled by a court. During this time, both partners have the rights and duties of a married couple. Grounds for annulment can include impotence, lack of consent due to mental incapacity, fraud, or the wife being pregnant by another man at the time of marriage.

Under Muslim law, irregular marriages have temporary problems that can be fixed. Under Parsi law, a second marriage without ending the first is void, and marriages impossible to consummate may be annulled. Under Christian law, marriages can be declared null for reasons such as bigamy, close blood relation, or lack of mental capacity.

Minimum Age and Child Marriage

Most personal laws set the minimum age at 21 for men and 18 for women. Marriages below this age are offences under the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, which applies to all communities.

Under Hindu law, such marriages are not automatically void but can be annulled at the request of the minor once they reach adulthood. In contrast, under the Special Marriage Act and Parsi law, marriages below the minimum age are void.

Courts have been cautious about declaring such marriages invalid because of social consequences, especially for young women. Some rulings have allowed minors to stay with their chosen spouse if the marriage was otherwise lawful and consensual.

Why Registration and Compliance Matter

Following the legal requirements and registering the marriage can prevent many problems. Without proof of marriage, it can be difficult to claim property rights, seek maintenance, or prove legitimacy of children. Registration also helps prevent fraudulent marriages and protects against disputes about whether a marriage took place at all.

Conclusion

Marriage laws in India are complex because they are tied to religion and community customs. Whether under Hindu, Parsi, Christian, Muslim, or secular law, the key principles are similar: both partners must consent, meet the age requirement, and follow legal and customary rules.

Knowing these requirements helps couples ensure that their marriage is valid and protected by law. It also protects against disputes and safeguards the rights of spouses and children.

In the next post, we will continue exploring Chapter 1 by looking at more detailed case laws on void and voidable marriages, and the impact of these rulings on modern marriage disputes.